The interaction between the and the. In, biological interactions can involve individuals of the same species (intraspecific interactions) or individuals of different species (interspecific interactions).

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These can be further classified by either the mechanism of the interaction or the strength, duration and direction of their effects. Species may interact once in a generation (e.g. ) or live completely within another (e.g.

Effects range from consumption of another individual (,, or ), to mutual benefit (). Interactions need not be direct; individuals may affect each other indirectly through intermediaries such as shared resources or common enemies. Contents • • • • • • • • • • • • • History [ ] Although biological interactions, more or less individually, were studied earlier, (1949) gave a integrative approach to the thematic, proposing a classification of 'co-actions', later adopted by biologists as 'interactions'. Interactions categorized by effect [ ] Effect on X Effect on Y Type of interaction - - - 0 Amensalism - + Exploitation 0 0 Neutralism 0 + + + Some types of relationships listed by the effect they have on each partner. '0' is no effect, '-' is detrimental, and '+' is beneficial. Terms that explicitly indicate the quality of benefit or harm in terms of experienced by participants in an interaction are listed in the chart.

There are six possible combinations, ranging from mutually beneficial through neutral to mutually harmful interactions. The level of benefit or harm is continuous and not discrete, so a particular interaction may have a range from trivially harmful through to deadly, for example. It is important to note that these interactions are not always static. In many cases, two species will interact differently under different conditions. This is particularly true in, but not limited to, cases where species have multiple, drastically different life stages. Amensalism [ ] Amensalism (term introduced also by Haskell) is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by itself. A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass.

Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it. Exploitation [ ]. This is not a bee, but a, a Batesian mimic. In exploitative interactions, one species benefits at the expense of another. Predation is an interaction between organisms in which one organism captures from another.

It is often used as a synonym for but in its widest definition includes all forms of one organism eating another, regardless of (e.g., herbivory), closeness of association (e.g., and ) and harm done to prey (e.g. Paint Shop Pro Print Templates. , ). Occurs when an organism preys upon another of different species but at the same trophic level (e.g., coyotes kill and ingest gray foxes in southern California). Is also an exploitative interaction, where one species has evolved to mimic another, to the advantage of the copying species but to the detriment of the species being mimicked. Neutralism [ ] Neutralism (term introduced by ) describes the relationship between two species that interact but do not affect each other. It describes interactions where the health of one species has absolutely no effect whatsoever on that of the other. Examples of true neutralism are virtually impossible to prove and most ecologists (as well as textbooks) would agree that this concept does not exist.